Introduction
Reservation policy in India stands at the crossroads of social justice, meritocracy, and national integration. Introduced as a measure to redress centuries of discrimination against Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC), the reservation policy has dramatically evolved, especially after the Economic Weaker Sections (EWS) quota and debates intensified in 2025. In this extensively researched article, we unravel the evolution, structure, legal battles, pros and cons, controversies, and lived realities of India’s reservation system, referencing updated data, government sources, and authoritative reports.
For a comprehensive summary of reservation policies and their history, see the Wikipedia entry on Reservation in India.
What Is the Reservation Policy? (Affirmative Action in India)
Reservation, or affirmative action, is a constitutionally mandated system of quotas in higher education, public sector jobs, and legislatures for historically marginalized communities. The key constitutional provisions are Articles 15(4), 16(4), and Article 46. Primary beneficiaries:
- Scheduled Castes (SC)
- Scheduled Tribes (ST)
- Other Backward Classes (OBC)
- Economic Weaker Sections (EWS) of unreserved categories (since 2019)
Landmark Supreme Court judgments, like the Indra Sawhney (Mandal) case, have set ceilings and clarified the scope of reservations (details here).
Timeline: Key Milestones
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1950 | Reservation for SCs and STs enshrined in Constitution |
| 1979–90 | Mandal Commission recommends, and OBC reservations implemented (1990–92) |
| 1992 | Supreme Court upholds OBC quotas and introduces the 50% cap, creates “creamy layer” |
| 2019 | 103rd Amendment introduces 10% EWS quota for economically weaker unreserved classes |
| 2024-25 | Reservation for SCs and STs enshrined in the Constitution |
Extensive details on the background can be found in Drishti IAS’s analysis.
Current Quota Structure & State Variations
| Category | Central Quota (%) | Notable State Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Scheduled Castes (SC) | 15 | TN: 18% |
| Scheduled Tribes (ST) | 7.5 | NE: 20–30% (varies) |
| Other Backward Classes (OBC) | 27 | TN: 50% (incl. MBC), UP: 27% |
| Economically Weaker Sections(EWS) | 10 | Implemented across most states |
| TOTAL | 59.5 | TN: 69%, Telangana: 67% |
States like Tamil Nadu protect their higher quotas using the Ninth Schedule, although legality remains under judicial review (India Today coverage).
Pros of the Reservation Policy in India
| Benefit | Evidence & External Sources |
|---|---|
| Redresses historical injustice | Scheduled Castes and Tribes gained access to education/employment opportunities once impossible (StudyIQ) |
| Promotes equality and diversity | Diversity in government jobs and higher education dramatically increased (Affirmative Action in Indian Higher Education) |
| Empowerment and social mobility | SC and ST representation in central government increased over decades (PRIA report) |
| Measures ongoing discrimination | Atrocities, poverty, and educational inequality persist—affirmative action remains necessary (Vikaspedia) |
| Facilitates political inclusion | Reserved legislative seats give marginalized communities a stronger voice (Wikipedia) |
Cons & Major Controversies
| Drawback | Evidence & External Sources |
|---|---|
| Alleged threat to meritocracy | Elite exams have seen open protests against quotas; ‘merit’ remains a contested, socially weighted idea (Law Chakra) |
| Perpetuates caste consciousness | Caste-based politics often dominate state elections; quotas have become political tools (StudyIQ) |
| Creamy layer exclusion uneven | Wealthier and socially advanced OBCs dominate benefits, while poorer OBCs often miss out (SSRN paper) |
| Exclusion of deserving general poor | EWS quota (2019) aims to address this, but questions linger about effective targeting (Rethinking Reservation – DrishtiIAS) |
| Protests and social tension | Maratha, Patidar, and Jat agitations show reservation’s polarizing effects (India Today) |
| Quota overlaps, cap controversy | States exceeding 50% (e.g., TN at 69%) prompt ongoing Supreme Court litigation, creating policy uncertainty (India Today) |
Reservation Policy: Real Impact – Charts & Data
Table: Higher Education Enrollment by Caste Group (2024–2025)
| Group | Higher Ed Enrollment (%) | Graduation Rate (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Gen Cat | 39 | 36 |
| OBC | 28 | 25 |
| SC | 17 | 12 |
| ST | 6 | 4 |
Analysis: SC, ST enrollment has increased fourfold since 1980, but drop-out rates and post-graduation job attainment still lag behind general/OBC students (Boston College research).
Chart: Growth in Government Jobs Held by Marginalized Groups (1980–2025)
| Year | SC/ST (%) | OBC (%) | Gen Cat (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1980 | 12/3 | 0 | 85 |
| 2000 | 14/5 | 3 | 78 |
| 2025 | 16/8 | 22 | 54 |
(See full dataset at Rethinking Reservation – DrishtiIAS)
Recent Controversies and Evolving Landscape (2023–2025)
- Caste Census: Demand for a new comprehensive caste census to update socio-economic data and reframe quotas
(India Today on Census Debate). - Legal Battles: Supreme Court to decide if the 50% cap stands or exceptions for specific states (e.g., TN, Telangana) will persist.
- Economic Quotas: The EWS quota, upheld by the Supreme Court in 2022, reflects a shift toward blending economic and social reservations (LegalOnus explainer).
- Intersectional Equity Movements: Youth and social activists increasingly campaign for intersectional policies, considering region, gender, and disability, not just caste or class (Unjust Disparities – DrishtiIAS).
Ground-level Realities: Stories from Students and Job Seekers
- Campus Bias: Dalit/OBC/EWS students continue to face stigma despite entering colleges on quotas. In elite colleges (IITs/IIMs), social exclusion, “merit” debates, and lower placement rates persist (Why India’s top tech universities can’t shake off caste bias – DW).
- Economically Backward Non-reserved: Students from EWS backgrounds (general category) cite relief but confusion about documentation and criteria for 10% EWS quota.
- Regional Tensions: Protests by Marathas and Patidars underline how non-reserved groups are increasingly demanding inclusion, seeing themselves as “left out” of state largesse.
The Road Ahead
Reservation reform is unlikely to disappear—its core logic remains relevant as long as social, educational, and economic gaps persist. However, the system requires:
- Better Data (via caste and socio-economic census)
- Targeted Quotas (stricter creamy layer rules, region-specific policies)
- Regular Review (quota size adjusted based on changing backwardness, not political expedience)
- Intersectionality (addressing gender, region, and disability, not just caste/class)
Explore comprehensive policy evolution, pros, and cons at StudyIQ’s Indian Reservation System guide.
FAQ – Reservation Policy India
Q1: Is there a constitutional limit for reservations?
A: Yes, a 50% cap was set by the Supreme Court in the Indra Sawhney case, but several states exceed this through special laws. The issue is under ongoing litigation (India Today).
Q2: Who qualifies for reservations in India?
A: Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), Other Backward Classes (OBC—excluding “creamy layer”), and Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) in the open category, with criteria notified by the government (Wikipedia).
Q3: Does quota affect meritocracy?
A: Studies show that reserved category beneficiaries perform comparably with support. However, stigma and social hostility can affect outcomes. See Affirmative Action research.
Q4: Why do some states have over 50% quotas?
A: Special state laws and the Ninth Schedule allow for exceptions, but these are continually reviewed by courts (India Today).
Q5: What changes are expected by 2025?
A: Likely regular data reviews, greater focus on intersectional considerations, and ongoing legal clarification on the cap, creamy layer, and targeting efficiency (LegalOnus explainer).
References
- Reservation in India – Wikipedia (detailed legal and historical summary)
- Indian Reservation System – StudyIQ: Pros, Cons, and Critical Analysis
- Rethinking Reservation Policies in India – Drishti IAS
- Supreme Court EWS Quota, 50% Cap & Caste Census Debate – India Today
- Affirmative Action in Indian Higher Education – Boston College
- Legal Onus: Caste-based Reservations and Affirmative Action
- Reservation Policy of India – Is it Affirmative Action? (SSRN)
- All About Reservation Policy In India – iPleaders
- Reservation Policy Debate – UPSC Social Justice Notes, Edukemy
- Reservation System: Pros, Cons & Legal Analysis – Law Chakra
- Caste Discrimination – Vikaspedia
- Why India’s top tech universities can’t shake off caste bias – DW